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雷达信号处理基础-Mark A. Richards
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Symbols
Acronyms
1 Introduction to Radar Systems and Signal Processing
1.1 History and Applications of Radar
1.2 Basic Radar Functions
1.3 Elements of a Pulsed Radar
1.3.1 Transmitter and Waveform Generator
1.3.2 Antennas
1.3.3 Receivers
1.4 Common Threads in Radar Signal Processing
1.4.1 Signal-to-Interference Ratio and Integration
1.4.2 Resolution
1.4.3 Data Integration and Phase History Modeling
1.4.4 Bandwidth Expansion
1.5 A Preview of Basic Radar Signal Processing
1.5.1 Radar Time Scales
1.5.2 Phenomenology
1.5.3 Signal Conditioning and Interference Suppression
1.5.4 Imaging
1.5.5 Detection
1.5.6 Measurements and Track Filtering
1.6 Radar Literature
1.6.1 Radar Systems and Components
1.6.2 Basic Radar Signal Processing
1.6.3 Advanced Radar Signal Processing
1.6.4 Radar Applications
1.6.5 Current Radar Research
References
Problems
2 Signal Models
2.1 Components of a Radar Signal
2.2 Amplitude
2.2.1 Simple Point Target Radar Range Equation
2.2.2 Distributed Target Forms of the Range Equation
2.2.3 Radar Cross Section
2.2.4 Radar Cross Section for Meteorological Targets
2.2.5 Statistical Description of Radar Cross Section
2.2.6 Target Fluctuation Models
2.2.7 Swerling Models
2.2.8 Effect of Target Fluctuations on Doppler Spectrum
2.3 Clutter
2.3.1 Behavior of σ 0
2.3.2 Signal-to-Clutter Ratio
2.3.3 Temporal and Spatial Correlation of Clutter
2.3.4 Compound Models of Radar Cross Section
2.4 Noise Model and Signal-to-Noise Ratio
2.5 Jamming
2.6 Frequency Models: The Doppler Shift
2.6.1 Doppler Shift
2.6.2 The Stop-and-Hop Approximation and Phase History
2.6.3 Measuring Doppler Shift: Spatial Doppler
2.7 Spatial Models
2.7.1 Coherent Scattering
2.7.2 Variation with Angle
2.7.3 Variation with Range
2.7.4 Noncoherent Scattering
2.7.5 Projections
2.7.6 Multipath
2.8 Spectral Model
2.9 Summary
References
Problems
3 Pulsed Radar Data Acquisition
3.1 Acquiring and Organizing Pulsed Radar Data
3.1.1 One Pulse: Fast Time
3.1.2 Multiple Pulses: Slow Time and the CPI
3.1.3 Doppler and Range Ambiguities
3.1.4 Multiple Channels: The Datacube
3.1.5 Dwells
3.2 Sampling the Doppler Spectrum
3.2.1 The Nyquist Rate in Doppler
3.2.2 Straddle Loss
3.3 Sampling in the Spatial and Angle Dimensions
3.3.1 Spatial Array Sampling
3.3.2 Sampling in Angle
3.4 I/Q Imbalance and Digital I/Q
3.4.1 I/Q Imbalance and Offset
3.4.2 Correcting I/Q Errors
3.4.3 Digital I/Q
References
Problems
4 Radar Waveforms
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Waveform Matched Filter
4.2.1 The Matched Filter
4.2.2 Matched Filter for the Simple Pulse
4.2.3 All-Range Matched Filtering
4.2.4 Straddle Loss
4.2.5 Range Resolution of the Matched Filter
4.3 Matched Filtering of Moving Targets
4.4 The Ambiguity Function
4.4.1 Definition and Properties of the Ambiguity Function
4.4.2 Ambiguity Function of the Simple Pulse
4.5 The Pulse Burst Waveform
4.5.1 Matched Filter for the Pulse Burst Waveform
4.5.2 Pulse-by-Pulse Processing
4.5.3 Range Ambiguity
4.5.4 Doppler Response of the Pulse Burst Waveform
4.5.5 Ambiguity Function for the Pulse Burst Waveform
4.5.6 The Slow-Time Spectrum and the Periodic Ambiguity
Function
4.6 Frequency-Modulated Pulse Compression Waveforms
4.6.1 Linear Frequency Modulation
4.6.2 The Principle of Stationary Phase
4.6.3 Ambiguity Function of the LFM Waveform
4.6.4 Range-Doppler Coupling
4.6.5 Stretch Processing
4.7 Range Sidelobe Control for FM Waveforms
4.7.1 Matched Filter Frequency Response Shaping
4.7.2 Matched Filter Impulse Response Shaping
4.7.3 Waveform Spectrum Shaping
4.8 The Stepped Frequency Waveform
4.9 The Stepped Chirp Waveform
4.10 Phase-Modulated Pulse Compression Waveforms
4.10.1 Biphase Codes
4.10.2 Polyphase Codes
4.10.3 Mismatched Phase Code Filters
4.11 Costas Frequency Codes
4.12 Continuous Wave Radar
References
Problems
5 Doppler Processing
5.1 Moving Platform Effects on the Doppler Spectrum
5.2 Moving Target Indication
5.2.1 Pulse Cancellers
5.2.2 Vector Formulation of the Matched Filter
5.2.3 Matched Filters for Clutter Suppression
5.2.4 Blind Speeds and Staggered PRFs
5.2.5 MTI Figures of Merit
5.2.6 Limitations to MTI Performance
5.3 Pulse Doppler Processing
5.3.1 The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform of a Moving Target
5.3.2 Sampling the DTFT: The Discrete Fourier Transform
5.3.3 The DFT of Noise
5.3.4 Pulse Doppler Processing Gain
5.3.5 Matched Filter and Filterbank Interpretations of Pulse
Doppler Processing with the DF T
5.3.6 Fine Doppler Estimation
5.3.7 Modern Spectral Estimation in Pulse Doppler Processing
5.3.8 CPI-to-CPI Stagger and Blind Zone Maps
5.4 Pulse Pair Processing
5.5 Additional Doppler Processing Issues
5.5.1 Combined MTI and Pulse Doppler Processing
5.5.2 Transient Effects
5.5.3 PRF Regimes
5.5.4 Ambiguity Resolution
5.6 Clutter Mapping and the Moving Target Detector
5.6.1 Clutter Mapping
5.6.2 The Moving Target Detector
5.7 MTI for Moving Platforms: Adaptive Displaced Phase Center
Antenna Processing
5.7.1 The DPCA Concept
5.7.2 Adaptive DPCA
References
Problems
6 Detection Fundamentals
6.1 Radar Detection as Hypothesis Testing
6.1.1 The Neyman-Pearson Detection Rule
6.1.2 The Likelihood Ratio Test
6.2 Threshold Detection in Coherent Systems
6.2.1 The Gaussian Case for Coherent Receivers
6.2.2 Unknown Parameters and Threshold Detection
6.2.3 Linear and Square-Law Detectors
6.2.4 Other Unknown Parameters
6.3 Threshold Detection of Radar Signals
6.3.1 Coherent, Noncoherent, and Binary Integration
6.3.2 Nonfluctuating Targets
6.3.3 Albersheim’s Equation
6.3.4 Fluctuating Targets
6.3.5 Shnidman’s Equation
6.4 Binary Integration
6.5 Constant False Alarm Rate Detection
6.5.1 The Effect of Unknown Interference Power on False
Alarm Probability
6.5.2 Cell-Averaging CFAR
6.5.3 Analysis of Cell-Averaging CFAR
6.5.4 CA CFAR Limitations
6.5.5 Extensions to Cell-Averaging CFAR
6.5.6 Order Statistic CFAR
6.5.7 Additional CFAR Topics
6.6 System-Level Control of False Alarms
References
Problems
7 Measurements and Tracking
7.1 Estimators
7.1.1 Estimator Properties
7.1.2 The Cramèr-Rao Lower Bound
7.1.3 The CRLB and Signal-to-Noise Ratio
7.1.4 Maximum Likelihood Estimators
7.2 Range, Doppler, and Angle Estimators
7.2.1 Range Estimators
7.2.2 Doppler Signal Estimators
7.2.3 Angle Estimators
7.3 Introduction to Tracking
7.3.1 Sequential Least Squares Estimation
7.3.2 The α –β Filter
7.3.3 The Kalman Filter
7.3.4 The Tracking Cycle
References
Problems
8 Introduction to Synthetic Aperture Imaging
8.1 Introduction to SAR Fundamentals
8.1.1 Cross-Range Resolution in Radar
8.1.2 The Synthetic Aperture Viewpoint
8.1.3 Doppler Viewpoint
8.1.4 SAR Coverage and Sampling
8.2 Stripmap SAR Data Characteristics
8.2.1 Stripmap SAR Geometry
8.2.2 Stripmap SAR Data Set
8.3 Stripmap SAR Image Formation Algorithms
8.3.1 Doppler Beam Sharpening
8.3.2 Quadratic Phase Error Effects
8.3.3 Range-Doppler Algorithms
8.3.4 Depth of Focus
8.4 Spotlight SAR Data Characteristics
8.5 The Polar Format Image Formation Algorithm for Spotlight SAR
8.6 Interferometric SAR
8.6.1 The Effect of Height on a SAR Image
8.6.2 IFSAR Processing Steps
8.7 Other Considerations
8.7.1 Motion Compensation and Autofocus
8.7.2 Autofocus
8.7.3 Speckle Reduction
References
Problems
9 Introduction to Beamforming and Space-Time Adaptive Processing
9.1 Spatial Filtering
9.1.1 Beamforming
9.1.2 Adaptive Beamforming
9.1.3 Adaptive Beamforming with Preprocessing
9.2 Space-Time Signal Environment
9.3 Space-Time Signal Modeling
9.4 Processing the Space-Time Signal
9.4.1 Optimum Matched Filtering
9.4.2 STAP Metrics
9.4.3 Relation to Displaced Phase Center Antenna Processing
9.4.4 Adaptive Matched Filtering
9.5 Reduced-Dimension STAP
9.6 Advanced STAP Algorithms and Analysis
9.7 Limitations to STAP
References
Problems
A Selected Topics in Probability and Random Processes
B Selected Topics in Digital Signal Processing
Index